Понятие управленческой информации
Информация представляет собой отражение в сознании человека характеристик окружающего мира, зафиксированное впоследствии на материальных и иных носителях. Она имеет количественные и качественные характеристики, может воспроизводиться, покупаться и продаваться.
Под управленческой информацией понимается совокупность сведений, о процессах, протекающих внутри организации и в ее окружении, уменьшающих неопределенность управления и принятия решений.
Поэтому управленческая деятельность начинается со сбора, накопления и переработки информации, составляющей ее основу. Если необходимые для управления сведения в составе информации отсутствуют, она является познавательной; если же сообщения вообще не несут информации, они называются «шумом».
Потребность в управленческой информации определяется содержанием и повторяемостью решаемых задач; пониманием их людьми; имеющимися у последних знаниями, опытом, образованием — чем они выше, тем меньше сотрудники нуждаются в дополнительной информации.
КЛАССИФИКАЦИЯ
Информацию можно классифицировать по ряду позиций, в частности:
- по носителям (электронные, вещественные и т.п.);
- по направлению движения (входящая и исходящая);
- по источнику (внешняя и внутренняя);
- по содержанию (экономическая, правовая, техническая и пр.);
- по спектру применимости (одноцелевая связана с решением одной конкретной проблемы; многоцелевая — нескольких различных);
- по назначению (отчетная служит для анализа; оперативная — для корректировки деятельности организации; отчетная информация бывает статистической, собираемой в определенные сроки в стандартной форме и частично предоставляемой государственным органам, и не статистической);
- по возможности закрепления и хранения (фиксируемая на носителях информация может храниться практически бесконечно, не подвергаясь при этом искажению, свидетельством чего являются наскальные надписи и рисунки; не фиксируемая хранится некоторое время в памяти людей, а затем постепенно стирается и исчезает);
- по роли в управлении (основная информация имеет важное значение; вспомогательная самостоятельного значения не имеет);
- по степени готовности для использования (первичная информация представляет собой совокупность несистематизированных данных, полученных непосредственно из их источника и содержащих много лишнего, ненужного; промежуточная информация несет сведения, прошедшие через процесс предварительной «очистки» и систематизации, позволяющий решить вопрос о конкретных направлениях и способах их дальнейшего использования; конечная информация дает возможность принимать обоснованные управленческие решения; промежуточная и конечная информация является, таким образом, вторичной, производной);
- по степени важности (особо важная, включающая сведения, необходимые для выполнения задачи, например, указания, предписания, инструкции; желательная, без которой, однако, можно обойтись — об итогах работы, перспективах на будущее, внутренней жизни и т.п.);
- по полноте (частичная информация может использоваться лишь в совокупности с другой; комплексная дает всесторонне исчерпывающие сведения об объекте и позволяет непосредственно принимать любые решения);
- по предназначению (универсальная информация необходима для решения любых задач; функциональная — родственных; индивидуализированная — данной, конкретной, уникальной проблемы);
- по характеру потребления (постоянная информация требуется в неизменной форме в течение длительного времени, например, законодательные акты, нормативы; она фиксируется на более стойких носителях и должна быть общедоступной; переменная используется в течении короткого срока, а часто бывает одноразовой);
- по степени надежности (достоверная и вероятностная информация; характер последней может быть обусловлен принципиальной невозможностью получить от существующего источника надежные сведения, поскольку имеющиеся методы, не позволяют это сделать; неизбежными искажениями при их передаче, заведомым распространением изначально ложных сведений);
- по способам распространения (устная, письменная и комбинированная информация); форма передачи информации оказывает большое психологическое воздействие, например, устная информация, как правило, эффективнее письменной.
Специфической разновидностью управленческой информации являются слухи. Они представляют собой продукт творчества людей, пытающихся объяснить сложную эмоционально значимую для них ситуацию при отсутствии или недостатке официальных сведений. При этом, исходная версия, кочуя от одного работника к другому, дополняется и корректируется до тех пор, пока не сформируется вариант, в целом устраивающий большинство. Достоверность этого варианта зависит не только от истинности исходного, но от потребностей и ожиданий аудитории, а поэтому может колебаться в диапазоне от 0 до 80—90%.
Поскольку большинство людей склонно считать, что слухи исходят из источников, достойных доверия, руководство организаций на Западе часто применяют их для распространяя сведений, которые по тем или иным причинам не могут быть преданы официальной огласке. В то же время доверием людей слухам пользуются и участники конфликтов, стремящиеся недобросовестными приемами склонить окружающих на свою сторону.
Работники представляют ложную информацию также из желания показать себя с лучшей стороны, скрыть ошибки, застраховаться от возможных конфликтных ситуаций и неприятностей. Причинами этого могут быть: неразумные распоряжения и излишняя строгость руководства, его чрезмерное вмешательство в выполняемую работу, излишне жесткий контроль, стремление руководителей сваливать вину на подчиненных; отсутствие регламентов, критериев достоверной информации, неэффективность системы ее проверки и оценки.
Исследования показывают, что от 50 до 90% рабочего времени менеджер тратит на обмен информацией, происходящий в процессе совещаний, собраний, бесед, встреч, переговоров, приема посетителей и пр. И это — жизненная необходимость, поскольку информация сегодня превратилась в важнейший ресурс социально-экономического, технического, технологического развития любой организации.
Без информации невозможна совместная работа в условиях разделения труда. Обладание информацией означает обладание реальной властью, и поэтому лица, причастные к ней, стремятся ее утаивать, чтобы впоследствии на ней спекулировать — ведь нехватка информации, как впрочем и избыток ненужной, дезориентирует любую хозяйственную деятельность.
Существует прямая связь между информированностью и степенью удовлетворения трудом. Так, хорошо информированные сотрудники довольны своей работой в 68 случаях из 100, а плохо информированные — только в 41.
[ Источник]
Управленческая информация — основа эффективной работы менеджера
Глобальные изменения в сфере информационных технологий, произошедшие за последние несколько десятилетий, превратили информационный ресурс любой организации в ее главное богатство, а владение соответствующей информацией — обязательным условием эффективного управления.
Управленческая информация — это комплекс знаний, которые использует менеджер в процессе разработки и принятия управленческих решений. Данная информация может быть как объективной (документы, подтвержденные факты), так и субъективной (предположения, суждения, мнения).
Среди основных характеристик управленческой информации выделяют следующие:
- объем — избыточность, достаточность и недостаточность информации;
- достоверность — зависит от принципов документооборота в организации и времени прохождения информации к получателю;
- стоимость — определяется уровнем затрат ресурсов, необходимых для принятия обоснованного управленческого решения;
- насыщенность — баланс между полезной (относится непосредственно к объекту управления) и фоновой (служит для лучшего восприятия полезной) информацией;
- открытость — возможность предоставления информации заинтересованным группам лиц, с которыми предприятие взаимодействует в процессе своей работы;
- ценность — степень соответствия информации ценностным ориентирам функционирования организации.
Следует отметить, что информация и данные — это разные понятия. Данные формируются из набора случайных несвязанных фактов, которые регистрируются на различных носителях. Когда же эти данные отбираются, систематизируются и обобщаются, получается информация.
Специалисты определили 4 способа выработки управленческой информации:
- Самонаблюдение — собственные источники информации менеджера: образование, квалификация и опыт, приобретенные знания.
- Взаимодействие — общение с людьми, в процессе которого происходит взаимный обмен полезной информацией.
- Сообщения — письма, отчеты, внутренняя документация и специально организованные исследования.
- Анализ — выработка информации путем использования методов и экономико-математических моделей принятия управленческих решений.
Управляя информацией и преобразовывая ее в базу корпоративных знаний организации, менеджеру не стоит забывать о том, что все информационные источники в определенной степени зависят от человеческого фактора. Чтобы факты не превратились в суждения, а отвечали основным принципам эффективной управленческой информации, данные должны обрабатываться на месте их возникновения. Следовательно, необходимо сформировать перечень источников, из которых будут поступать требуемые данные.
[ Источник]
Тематики
EN
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > management information
12 ADS information data entry
ввод информационных данных в ADS
Данные по прибытиям и отъездам требуют ручного введения информации. Процессы, касающиеся ввода данных, а также такие вопросы, как шрифт, аббревиатуры, шифры и т.д., должны быть рассмотрены и проверены до начала периода проведения Игр. Также рекомендуется установить системы контроля данных, такие как отметки времени и даты, дата ввода, организация файлов и т.д. Из-за нехватки времени и сложности вводимых данных, на ввод данных и составление отчетов может понадобиться до 20 часов ежедневно.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]
EN
ADS information data entry
A&D data requires manual data entry. Processes for data entry and issues such as font, acronyms, codes, etc., should be considered and tested prior to the Games-time data being entered. It is also recommended that data control systems be established, such as time/date stamps, date entered, filing etc. Due to the time critical and intricate nature of the data entry, up to 20 hours per day of operations could be required for data to be entered and reports produced.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]
Тематики
EN
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > ADS information data entry
13 Cooperating sequential processes
I
வரிசைவரு முறைவழி(இ.வ)/செயற்படுத்து(த.வ) கூட்டுறவு
II
ஒருங்கிணைத்தொடர் செயலாக்கங்கள்
14 e-commerce processes
E-com
the flow of information through planning, design, manufacture, sales, order processing, distribution, and quality in an e-business
15 computer processes information
English-Russian dictionary of telecommunications > computer processes information
16 automation
17 Bibliography
■ Aitchison, J. (1987). Noam Chomsky: Consensus and controversy. New York: Falmer Press.
■ Anderson, J. R. (1980). Cognitive psychology and its implications. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Anderson, J. R. (1995). Cognitive psychology and its implications (4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman.
■ Archilochus (1971). In M. L. West (Ed.), Iambi et elegi graeci (Vol. 1). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
■ Armstrong, D. M. (1990). The causal theory of the mind. In W. G. Lycan (Ed.), Mind and cognition: A reader (pp. 37-47). Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. (Originally published in 1981 in The nature of mind and other essays, Ithaca, NY: University Press).
■ Atkins, P. W. (1992). Creation revisited. Oxford: W. H. Freeman & Company.
■ Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Bacon, F. (1878). Of the proficience and advancement of learning divine and human. In The works of Francis Bacon (Vol. 1). Cambridge, MA: Hurd & Houghton.
■ Bacon, R. (1928). Opus majus (Vol. 2). R. B. Burke (Trans.). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
■ Bar-Hillel, Y. (1960). The present status of automatic translation of languages. In F. L. Alt (Ed.), Advances in computers (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press.
■ Barr, A., & E. A. Feigenbaum (Eds.) (1981). The handbook of artificial intelligence (Vol. 1). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
■ Barr, A., & E. A. Feigenbaum (Eds.) (1982). The handbook of artificial intelligence (Vol. 2). Los Altos, CA: William Kaufman.
■ Barron, F. X. (1963). The needs for order and for disorder as motives in creative activity. In C. W. Taylor & F. X. Barron (Eds.), Scientific creativity: Its rec ognition and development (pp. 153-160). New York: Wiley.
■ Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Bartley, S. H. (1969). Principles of perception. London: Harper & Row.
■ Barzun, J. (1959). The house of intellect. New York: Harper & Row.
■ Beach, F. A., D. O. Hebb, C. T. Morgan & H. W. Nissen (Eds.) (1960). The neu ropsychology of Lashley. New York: McGraw-Hill.
■ Berkeley, G. (1996). Principles of human knowledge: Three Dialogues. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Originally published in 1710.)
■ Berlin, I. (1953). The hedgehog and the fox: An essay on Tolstoy's view of history. NY: Simon & Schuster.
■ Bierwisch, J. (1970). Semantics. In J. Lyons (Ed.), New horizons in linguistics. Baltimore: Penguin Books.
■ Black, H. C. (1951). Black's law dictionary. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.
■ Bloom, A. (1981). The linguistic shaping of thought: A study in the impact of language on thinking in China and the West. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
■ Bobrow, D. G., & D. A. Norman (1975). Some principles of memory schemata. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Stud ies in Cognitive Science (pp. 131-149). New York: Academic Press.
■ Boden, M. A. (1977). Artificial intelligence and natural man. New York: Basic Books.
■ Boden, M. A. (1981). Minds and mechanisms. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
■ Boden, M. A. (1990a). The creative mind: Myths and mechanisms. London: Cardinal.
■ Boden, M. A. (1990b). The philosophy of artificial intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
■ Boden, M. A. (1994). Precis of The creative mind: Myths and mechanisms. Behavioral and brain sciences 17, 519-570.
■ Boden, M. (1996). Creativity. In M. Boden (Ed.), Artificial Intelligence (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.
■ Bolter, J. D. (1984). Turing's man: Western culture in the computer age. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
■ Bolton, N. (1972). The psychology of thinking. London: Methuen.
■ Bourne, L. E. (1973). Some forms of cognition: A critical analysis of several papers. In R. Solso (Ed.), Contemporary issues in cognitive psychology (pp. 313324). Loyola Symposium on Cognitive Psychology (Chicago 1972). Washington, DC: Winston.
■ Bransford, J. D., N. S. McCarrell, J. J. Franks & K. E. Nitsch (1977). Toward unexplaining memory. In R. Shaw & J. D. Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting, and knowing (pp. 431-466). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Breger, L. (1981). Freud's unfinished journey. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
■ Brehmer, B. (1986). In one word: Not from experience. In H. R. Arkes & K. Hammond (Eds.), Judgment and decision making: An interdisciplinary reader (pp. 705-719). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Bresnan, J. (1978). A realistic transformational grammar. In M. Halle, J. Bresnan & G. A. Miller (Eds.), Linguistic theory and psychological reality (pp. 1-59). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Brislin, R. W., W. J. Lonner & R. M. Thorndike (Eds.) (1973). Cross- cultural research methods. New York: Wiley.
■ Bronowski, J. (1977). A sense of the future: Essays in natural philosophy. P. E. Ariotti with R. Bronowski (Eds.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Bronowski, J. (1978). The origins of knowledge and imagination. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
■ Brown, R. O. (1973). A first language: The early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Brown, T. (1970). Lectures on the philosophy of the human mind. In R. Brown (Ed.), Between Hume and Mill: An anthology of British philosophy- 1749- 1843 (pp. 330-387). New York: Random House/Modern Library.
■ Bruner, J. S., J. Goodnow & G. Austin (1956). A study of thinking. New York: Wiley.
■ Calvin, W. H. (1990). The cerebral symphony: Seashore reflections on the structure of consciousness. New York: Bantam.
■ Campbell, J. (1982). Grammatical man: Information, entropy, language, and life. New York: Simon & Schuster.
■ Campbell, J. (1989). The improbable machine. New York: Simon & Schuster.
■ Carlyle, T. (1966). On heroes, hero- worship and the heroic in history. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. (Originally published in 1841.)
■ Carnap, R. (1959). The elimination of metaphysics through logical analysis of language [Ueberwindung der Metaphysik durch logische Analyse der Sprache]. In A. J. Ayer (Ed.), Logical positivism (pp. 60-81) A. Pap (Trans). New York: Free Press. (Originally published in 1932.)
■ Cassirer, E. (1946). Language and myth. New York: Harper and Brothers. Reprinted. New York: Dover Publications, 1953.
■ Cattell, R. B., & H. J. Butcher (1970). Creativity and personality. In P. E. Vernon (Ed.), Creativity. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books.
■ Caudill, M., & C. Butler (1990). Naturally intelligent systems. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Chandrasekaran, B. (1990). What kind of information processing is intelligence? A perspective on AI paradigms and a proposal. In D. Partridge & R. Wilks (Eds.), The foundations of artificial intelligence: A sourcebook (pp. 14-46). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Charniak, E., & McDermott, D. (1985). Introduction to artificial intelligence. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
■ Chase, W. G., & H. A. Simon (1988). The mind's eye in chess. In A. Collins & E. E. Smith (Eds.), Readings in cognitive science: A perspective from psychology and artificial intelligence (pp. 461-493). San Mateo, CA: Kaufmann.
■ Cheney, D. L., & R. M. Seyfarth (1990). How monkeys see the world: Inside the mind of another species. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
■ Chi, M.T.H., R. Glaser & E. Rees (1982). Expertise in problem solving. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (pp. 7-73). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Chomsky, N. (1957). Syntactic structures. The Hague: Mouton. Janua Linguarum.
■ Chomsky, N. (1964). A transformational approach to syntax. In J. A. Fodor & J. J. Katz (Eds.), The structure of language: Readings in the philosophy of lan guage (pp. 211-245). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
■ Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Chomsky, N. (1972). Language and mind (enlarged ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
■ Chomsky, N. (1979). Language and responsibility. New York: Pantheon.
■ Chomsky, N. (1986). Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin and use. New York: Praeger Special Studies.
■ Churchland, P. (1979). Scientific realism and the plasticity of mind. New York: Cambridge University Press.
■ Churchland, P. M. (1989). A neurocomputational perspective: The nature of mind and the structure of science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Churchland, P. S. (1986). Neurophilosophy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Clark, A. (1996). Philosophical Foundations. In M. A. Boden (Ed.), Artificial in telligence (2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.
■ Clark, H. H., & T. B. Carlson (1981). Context for comprehension. In J. Long & A. Baddeley (Eds.), Attention and performance (Vol. 9, pp. 313-330). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Clarke, A. C. (1984). Profiles of the future: An inquiry into the limits of the possible. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
■ Claxton, G. (1980). Cognitive psychology: A suitable case for what sort of treatment? In G. Claxton (Ed.), Cognitive psychology: New directions (pp. 1-25). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
■ Code, M. (1985). Order and organism. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
■ Collingwood, R. G. (1972). The idea of history. New York: Oxford University Press.
■ Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self- esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ Copland, A. (1952). Music and imagination. London: Oxford University Press.
■ Coren, S. (1994). The intelligence of dogs. New York: Bantam Books.
■ Cottingham, J. (Ed.) (1996). Western philosophy: An anthology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
■ Cox, C. (1926). The early mental traits of three hundred geniuses. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
■ Craik, K.J.W. (1943). The nature of explanation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Cronbach, L. J. (1990). Essentials of psychological testing (5th ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
■ Cronbach, L. J., & R. E. Snow (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods. New York: Irvington. Paperback edition, 1981.
■ Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1993). The evolving self. New York: Harper Perennial.
■ Culler, J. (1976). Ferdinand de Saussure. New York: Penguin Books.
■ Curtius, E. R. (1973). European literature and the Latin Middle Ages. W. R. Trask (Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
■ D'Alembert, J.L.R. (1963). Preliminary discourse to the encyclopedia of Diderot. R. N. Schwab (Trans.). Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
■ Dampier, W. C. (1966). A history of modern science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Darwin, C. (1911). The life and letters of Charles Darwin (Vol. 1). Francis Darwin (Ed.). New York: Appleton.
■ Davidson, D. (1970) Mental events. In L. Foster & J. W. Swanson (Eds.), Experience and theory (pp. 79-101). Amherst: University of Massachussetts Press.
■ Davies, P. (1995). About time: Einstein's unfinished revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster/Touchstone.
■ Davis, R., & J. J. King (1977). An overview of production systems. In E. Elcock & D. Michie (Eds.), Machine intelligence 8. Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood.
■ Davis, R., & D. B. Lenat (1982). Knowledge- based systems in artificial intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
■ Dawkins, R. (1982). The extended phenotype: The gene as the unit of selection. Oxford: W. H. Freeman.
■ deKleer, J., & J. S. Brown (1983). Assumptions and ambiguities in mechanistic mental models (1983). In D. Gentner & A. L. Stevens (Eds.), Mental modes (pp. 155-190). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Dennett, D. C. (1978a). Brainstorms: Philosophical essays on mind and psychology. Montgomery, VT: Bradford Books.
■ Dennett, D. C. (1978b). Toward a cognitive theory of consciousness. In D. C. Dennett, Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology. Montgomery, VT: Bradford Books.
■ Dennett, D. C. (1995). Darwin's dangerous idea: Evolution and the meanings of life. New York: Simon & Schuster/Touchstone.
■ Descartes, R. (1897-1910). Traite de l'homme. In Oeuvres de Descartes (Vol. 11, pp. 119-215). Paris: Charles Adam & Paul Tannery. (Originally published in 1634.)
■ Descartes, R. (1950). Discourse on method. L. J. Lafleur (Trans.). New York: Liberal Arts Press. (Originally published in 1637.)
■ Descartes, R. (1951). Meditation on first philosophy. L. J. Lafleur (Trans.). New York: Liberal Arts Press. (Originally published in 1641.)
■ Descartes, R. (1955). The philosophical works of Descartes. E. S. Haldane and G.R.T. Ross (Trans.). New York: Dover. (Originally published in 1911 by Cambridge University Press.)
■ Descartes, R. (1967). Discourse on method (Pt. V). In E. S. Haldane and G.R.T. Ross (Eds.), The philosophical works of Descartes (Vol. 1, pp. 106-118). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Originally published in 1637.)
■ Descartes, R. (1970a). Discourse on method. In E. S. Haldane & G.R.T. Ross (Eds.), The philosophical works of Descartes (Vol. 1, pp. 181-200). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Originally published in 1637.)
■ Descartes, R. (1970b). Principles of philosophy. In E. S. Haldane & G.R.T. Ross (Eds.), The philosophical works of Descartes (Vol. 1, pp. 178-291). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Originally published in 1644.)
■ Descartes, R. (1984). Meditations on first philosophy. In J. Cottingham, R. Stoothoff & D. Murduch (Trans.), The philosophical works of Descartes (Vol. 2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Originally published in 1641.)
■ Descartes, R. (1986). Meditations on first philosophy. J. Cottingham (Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Originally published in 1641 as Med itationes de prima philosophia.)
■ deWulf, M. (1956). An introduction to scholastic philosophy. Mineola, NY: Dover Books.
■ Dixon, N. F. (1981). Preconscious processing. London: Wiley.
■ Doyle, A. C. (1986). The Boscombe Valley mystery. In Sherlock Holmes: The com plete novels and stories (Vol. 1). New York: Bantam.
■ Dreyfus, H., & S. Dreyfus (1986). Mind over machine. New York: Free Press.
■ Dreyfus, H. L. (1972). What computers can't do: The limits of artificial intelligence (revised ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
■ Dreyfus, H. L., & S. E. Dreyfus (1986). Mind over machine: The power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer. New York: Free Press.
■ Edelman, G. M. (1992). Bright air, brilliant fire: On the matter of the mind. New York: Basic Books.
■ Ehrenzweig, A. (1967). The hidden order of art. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
■ Einstein, A., & L. Infeld (1938). The evolution of physics. New York: Simon & Schuster.
■ Eisenstein, S. (1947). Film sense. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
■ Everdell, W. R. (1997). The first moderns. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
■ Eysenck, M. W. (1977). Human memory: Theory, research and individual difference. Oxford: Pergamon.
■ Eysenck, M. W. (1982). Attention and arousal: Cognition and performance. Berlin: Springer.
■ Eysenck, M. W. (1984). A handbook of cognitive psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Fancher, R. E. (1979). Pioneers of psychology. New York: W. W. Norton.
■ Farrell, B. A. (1981). The standing of psychoanalysis. New York: Oxford University Press.
■ Feldman, D. H. (1980). Beyond universals in cognitive development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
■ Fetzer, J. H. (1996). Philosophy and cognitive science (2nd ed.). New York: Paragon House.
■ Finke, R. A. (1990). Creative imagery: Discoveries and inventions in visualization. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Flanagan, O. (1991). The science of the mind. Cambridge MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Fodor, J. (1983). The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Frege, G. (1972). Conceptual notation. T. W. Bynum (Trans.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. (Originally published in 1879.)
■ Frege, G. (1979). Logic. In H. Hermes, F. Kambartel & F. Kaulbach (Eds.), Gottlob Frege: Posthumous writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Originally published in 1879-1891.)
■ Freud, S. (1959). Creative writers and day-dreaming. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 9, pp. 143-153). London: Hogarth Press.
■ Freud, S. (1966). Project for a scientific psychology. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The stan dard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 1, pp. 295-398). London: Hogarth Press. (Originally published in 1950 as Aus den AnfaЁngen der Psychoanalyse, in London by Imago Publishing.)
■ Freud, S. (1976). Lecture 18-Fixation to traumas-the unconscious. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 16, p. 285). London: Hogarth Press.
■ Galileo, G. (1990). Il saggiatore [The assayer]. In S. Drake (Ed.), Discoveries and opinions of Galileo. New York: Anchor Books. (Originally published in 1623.)
■ Gassendi, P. (1970). Letter to Descartes. In "Objections and replies." In E. S. Haldane & G.R.T. Ross (Eds.), The philosophical works of Descartes (Vol. 2, pp. 179-240). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Originally published in 1641.)
■ Gazzaniga, M. S. (1988). Mind matters: How mind and brain interact to create our conscious lives. Boston: Houghton Mifflin in association with MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Genesereth, M. R., & N. J. Nilsson (1987). Logical foundations of artificial intelligence. Palo Alto, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
■ Ghiselin, B. (1952). The creative process. New York: Mentor.
■ Ghiselin, B. (1985). The creative process. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. (Originally published in 1952.)
■ Gilhooly, K. J. (1996). Thinking: Directed, undirected and creative (3rd ed.). London: Academic Press.
■ Glass, A. L., K. J. Holyoak & J. L. Santa (1979). Cognition. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley.
■ Goody, J. (1977). The domestication of the savage mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Gruber, H. E. (1980). Darwin on man: A psychological study of scientific creativity (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
■ Gruber, H. E., & S. Davis (1988). Inching our way up Mount Olympus: The evolving systems approach to creative thinking. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity: Contemporary psychological perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Guthrie, E. R. (1972). The psychology of learning. New York: Harper. (Originally published in 1935.)
■ Habermas, J. (1972). Knowledge and human interests. Boston: Beacon Press.
■ Hadamard, J. (1945). The psychology of invention in the mathematical field. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
■ Hand, D. J. (1985). Artificial intelligence and psychiatry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Harris, M. (1981). The language myth. London: Duckworth.
■ Haugeland, J. (Ed.) (1981). Mind design: Philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Haugeland, J. (1981a). The nature and plausibility of cognitivism. In J. Haugeland (Ed.), Mind design: Philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence (pp. 243-281). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Haugeland, J. (1981b). Semantic engines: An introduction to mind design. In J. Haugeland (Ed.), Mind design: Philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence (pp. 1-34). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Haugeland, J. (1985). Artificial intelligence: The very idea. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Hawkes, T. (1977). Structuralism and semiotics. Berkeley: University of California Press.
■ Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organisation of behaviour. New York: Wiley.
■ Hebb, D. O. (1958). A textbook of psychology. Philadelphia: Saunders.
■ Hegel, G.W.F. (1910). The phenomenology of mind. J. B. Baille (Trans.). London: Sonnenschein. (Originally published as Phaenomenologie des Geistes, 1807.)
■ Heisenberg, W. (1958). Physics and philosophy. New York: Harper & Row.
■ Hempel, C. G. (1966). Philosophy of natural science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.
■ Herman, A. (1997). The idea of decline in Western history. New York: Free Press.
■ Herrnstein, R. J., & E. G. Boring (Eds.) (1965). A source book in the history of psy chology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Herzmann, E. (1964). Mozart's creative process. In P. H. Lang (Ed.), The creative world of Mozart (pp. 17-30). London: Oldbourne Press.
■ Hilgard, E. R. (1957). Introduction to psychology. London: Methuen.
■ Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan. London: Crooke.
■ Holliday, S. G., & M. J. Chandler (1986). Wisdom: Explorations in adult competence. Basel, Switzerland: Karger.
■ Horn, J. L. (1986). In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (Vol. 3). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
■ Hull, C. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
■ Hume, D. (1955). An inquiry concerning human understanding. New York: Liberal Arts Press. (Originally published in 1748.)
■ Hume, D. (1975). An enquiry concerning human understanding. In L. A. SelbyBigge (Ed.), Hume's enquiries (3rd. ed., revised P. H. Nidditch). Oxford: Clarendon. (Spelling and punctuation revised.) (Originally published in 1748.)
■ Hume, D. (1978). A treatise of human nature. L. A. Selby-Bigge (Ed.), Hume's enquiries (3rd. ed., revised P. H. Nidditch). Oxford: Clarendon. (With some modifications of spelling and punctuation.) (Originally published in 1690.)
■ Hunt, E. (1973). The memory we must have. In R. C. Schank & K. M. Colby (Eds.), Computer models of thought and language. (pp. 343-371) San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ Husserl, E. (1960). Cartesian meditations. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
■ Inhelder, B., & J. Piaget (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. New York: Basic Books. (Originally published in 1955 as De la logique de l'enfant a` la logique de l'adolescent. [Paris: Presses Universitaire de France])
■ James, W. (1890a). The principles of psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Dover Books.
■ James, W. (1890b). The principles of psychology. New York: Henry Holt.
■ Jevons, W. S. (1900). The principles of science (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan.
■ Johnson, G. (1986). Machinery of the mind: Inside the new science of artificial intelli gence. New York: Random House.
■ Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models: Toward a cognitive science of language, inference, and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1988). The computer and the mind: An introduction to cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Jones, E. (1961). The life and work of Sigmund Freud. L. Trilling & S. Marcus (Eds.). London: Hogarth.
■ Jones, R. V. (1985). Complementarity as a way of life. In A. P. French & P. J. Kennedy (Eds.), Niels Bohr: A centenary volume. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Kant, I. (1933). Critique of Pure Reason (2nd ed.). N. K. Smith (Trans.). London: Macmillan. (Originally published in 1781 as Kritik der reinen Vernunft.)
■ Kant, I. (1891). Solution of the general problems of the Prolegomena. In E. Belfort (Trans.), Kant's Prolegomena. London: Bell. (With minor modifications.) (Originally published in 1783.)
■ Katona, G. (1940). Organizing and memorizing: Studies in the psychology of learning and teaching. New York: Columbia University Press.
■ Kaufman, A. S. (1979). Intelligent testing with the WISC-R. New York: Wiley.
■ Koestler, A. (1964). The act of creation. New York: Arkana (Penguin).
■ Kohlberg, L. (1971). From is to ought. In T. Mischel (Ed.), Cognitive development and epistemology. (pp. 151-235) New York: Academic Press.
■ KoЁhler, W. (1925). The mentality of apes. New York: Liveright.
■ KoЁhler, W. (1927). The mentality of apes (2nd ed.). Ella Winter (Trans.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
■ KoЁhler, W. (1930). Gestalt psychology. London: G. Bell.
■ KoЁhler, W. (1947). Gestalt psychology. New York: Liveright.
■ KoЁhler, W. (1969). The task of Gestalt psychology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
■ Kuhn, T. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
■ Langer, E. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
■ Langer, S. (1962). Philosophical sketches. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
■ Langley, P., H. A. Simon, G. L. Bradshaw & J. M. Zytkow (1987). Scientific dis covery: Computational explorations of the creative process. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Lashley, K. S. (1951). The problem of serial order in behavior. In L. A. Jeffress (Ed.), Cerebral mechanisms in behavior, the Hixon Symposium (pp. 112-146) New York: Wiley.
■ LeDoux, J. E., & W. Hirst (1986). Mind and brain: Dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Lehnert, W. (1978). The process of question answering. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Leiber, J. (1991). Invitation to cognitive science. Oxford: Blackwell.
■ Lenat, D. B., & G. Harris (1978). Designing a rule system that searches for scientific discoveries. In D. A. Waterman & F. Hayes-Roth (Eds.), Pattern directed inference systems (pp. 25-52) New York: Academic Press.
■ Levenson, T. (1995). Measure for measure: A musical history of science. New York: Touchstone. (Originally published in 1994.)
■ Leґvi-Strauss, C. (1963). Structural anthropology. C. Jacobson & B. Grundfest Schoepf (Trans.). New York: Basic Books. (Originally published in 1958.)
■ Levine, M. W., & J. M. Schefner (1981). Fundamentals of sensation and perception. London: Addison-Wesley.
■ Lewis, C. I. (1946). An analysis of knowledge and valuation. LaSalle, IL: Open Court.
■ Lighthill, J. (1972). A report on artificial intelligence. Unpublished manuscript, Science Research Council.
■ Lipman, M., A. M. Sharp & F. S. Oscanyan (1980). Philosophy in the classroom. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
■ Lippmann, W. (1965). Public opinion. New York: Free Press. (Originally published in 1922.)
■ Locke, J. (1956). An essay concerning human understanding. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co. (Originally published in 1690.)
■ Locke, J. (1975). An essay concerning human understanding. P. H. Nidditch (Ed.). Oxford: Clarendon. (Originally published in 1690.) (With spelling and punctuation modernized and some minor modifications of phrasing.)
■ Lopate, P. (1994). The art of the personal essay. New York: Doubleday/Anchor Books.
■ Lorimer, F. (1929). The growth of reason. London: Kegan Paul. Machlup, F., & U. Mansfield (Eds.) (1983). The study of information. New York: Wiley.
■ Manguel, A. (1996). A history of reading. New York: Viking.
■ Markey, J. F. (1928). The symbolic process. London: Kegan Paul.
■ Martin, R. M. (1969). On Ziff's "Natural and formal languages." In S. Hook (Ed.), Language and philosophy: A symposium (pp. 249-263). New York: New York University Press.
■ Mazlish, B. (1993). The fourth discontinuity: the co- evolution of humans and machines. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
■ McCarthy, J., & P. J. Hayes (1969). Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence. In B. Meltzer & D. Michie (Eds.), Machine intelligence 4. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
■ McClelland, J. L., D. E. Rumelhart & G. E. Hinton (1986). The appeal of parallel distributed processing. In D. E. Rumelhart, J. L. McClelland & the PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the mi crostructure of cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 3-40). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/ Bradford Books.
■ McCorduck, P. (1979). Machines who think. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ McLaughlin, T. (1970). Music and communication. London: Faber & Faber.
■ Mednick, S. A. (1962). The associative basis of the creative process. Psychological Review 69, 431-436.
■ Meehl, P. E., & C. J. Golden (1982). Taxometric methods. In Kendall, P. C., & Butcher, J. N. (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in clinical psychology (pp. 127-182). New York: Wiley.
■ Mehler, J., E.C.T. Walker & M. Garrett (Eds.) (1982). Perspectives on mental rep resentation: Experimental and theoretical studies of cognitive processes and ca pacities. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Mill, J. S. (1900). A system of logic, ratiocinative and inductive: Being a connected view of the principles of evidence and the methods of scientific investigation. London: Longmans, Green.
■ Miller, G. A. (1979, June). A very personal history. Talk to the Cognitive Science Workshop, Cambridge, MA.
■ Miller, J. (1983). States of mind. New York: Pantheon Books.
■ Minsky, M. (1975). A framework for representing knowledge. In P. H. Winston (Ed.), The psychology of computer vision (pp. 211-277). New York: McGrawHill.
■ Minsky, M., & S. Papert (1973). Artificial intelligence. Condon Lectures, Oregon State System of Higher Education, Eugene, Oregon.
■ Minsky, M. L. (1986). The society of mind. New York: Simon & Schuster.
■ Mischel, T. (1976). Psychological explanations and their vicissitudes. In J. K. Cole & W. J. Arnold (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on motivation (Vol. 23). Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press.
■ Morford, M.P.O., & R. J. Lenardon (1995). Classical mythology (5th ed.). New York: Longman.
■ Murdoch, I. (1954). Under the net. New York: Penguin.
■ Nagel, E. (1959). Methodological issues in psychoanalytic theory. In S. Hook (Ed.), Psychoanalysis, scientific method, and philosophy: A symposium. New York: New York University Press.
■ Nagel, T. (1979). Mortal questions. London: Cambridge University Press.
■ Nagel, T. (1986). The view from nowhere. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
■ Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
■ Neisser, U. (1972). Changing conceptions of imagery. In P. W. Sheehan (Ed.), The function and nature of imagery (pp. 233-251). London: Academic Press.
■ Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ Neisser, U. (1978). Memory: What are the important questions? In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 3-24). London: Academic Press.
■ Neisser, U. (1979). The concept of intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg & D. K. Detterman (Eds.), Human intelligence: Perspectives on its theory and measurement (pp. 179-190). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
■ Nersessian, N. (1992). How do scientists think? Capturing the dynamics of conceptual change in science. In R. N. Giere (Ed.), Cognitive models of science (pp. 3-44). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
■ Newell, A. (1973a). Artificial intelligence and the concept of mind. In R. C. Schank & K. M. Colby (Eds.), Computer models of thought and language (pp. 1-60). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ Newell, A. (1973b). You can't play 20 questions with nature and win. In W. G. Chase (Ed.), Visual information processing (pp. 283-310). New York: Academic Press.
■ Newell, A., & H. A. Simon (1963). GPS: A program that simulates human thought. In E. A. Feigenbaum & J. Feldman (Eds.), Computers and thought (pp. 279-293). New York & McGraw-Hill.
■ Newell, A., & H. A. Simon (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
■ Nietzsche, F. (1966). Beyond good and evil. W. Kaufmann (Trans.). New York: Vintage. (Originally published in 1885.)
■ Nilsson, N. J. (1971). Problem- solving methods in artificial intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
■ Nussbaum, M. C. (1978). Aristotle's Princeton University Press. De Motu Anamalium. Princeton, NJ:
■ Oersted, H. C. (1920). Thermo-electricity. In Kirstine Meyer (Ed.), H. C. Oersted, Natuurvidenskabelige Skrifter (Vol. 2). Copenhagen: n.p. (Originally published in 1830 in The Edinburgh encyclopaedia.)
■ Ong, W. J. (1982). Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word. London: Methuen.
■ Onians, R. B. (1954). The origins of European thought. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
■ Osgood, C. E. (1960). Method and theory in experimental psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. (Originally published in 1953.)
■ Osgood, C. E. (1966). Language universals and psycholinguistics. In J. H. Greenberg (Ed.), Universals of language (2nd ed., pp. 299-322). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Palmer, R. E. (1969). Hermeneutics. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
■ Peirce, C. S. (1934). Some consequences of four incapacities-Man, a sign. In C. Hartsborne & P. Weiss (Eds.), Collected papers of Charles Saunders Peirce (Vol. 5, pp. 185-189). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Penfield, W. (1959). In W. Penfield & L. Roberts, Speech and brain mechanisms. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
■ Penrose, R. (1994). Shadows of the mind: A search for the missing science of conscious ness. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
■ Perkins, D. N. (1981). The mind's best work. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Peterfreund, E. (1986). The heuristic approach to psychoanalytic therapy. In
■ J. Reppen (Ed.), Analysts at work, (pp. 127-144). Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.
■ Piaget, J. (1952). The origin of intelligence in children. New York: International Universities Press. (Originally published in 1936.)
■ Piaget, J. (1954). Le langage et les opeґrations intellectuelles. Proble` mes de psycho linguistique. Symposium de l'Association de Psychologie Scientifique de Langue Francёaise. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
■ Piaget, J. (1977). Problems of equilibration. In H. E. Gruber & J. J. Voneche (Eds.), The essential Piaget (pp. 838-841). London: Routlege & Kegan Paul. (Originally published in 1975 as L'eґquilibration des structures cognitives [Paris: Presses Universitaires de France].)
■ Piaget, J., & B. Inhelder. (1973). Memory and intelligence. New York: Basic Books.
■ Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct. New York: Morrow.
■ Pinker, S. (1996). Facts about human language relevant to its evolution. In J.-P. Changeux & J. Chavaillon (Eds.), Origins of the human brain. A symposium of the Fyssen foundation (pp. 262-283). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Planck, M. (1949). Scientific autobiography and other papers. F. Gaynor (Trans.). New York: Philosophical Library.
■ Planck, M. (1990). Wissenschaftliche Selbstbiographie. W. Berg (Ed.). Halle, Germany: Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina.
■ Plato (1892). Meno. In The Dialogues of Plato (B. Jowett, Trans.; Vol. 2). New York: Clarendon. (Originally published circa 380 B.C.)
■ Poincareґ, H. (1913). Mathematical creation. In The foundations of science. G. B. Halsted (Trans.). New York: Science Press.
■ Poincareґ, H. (1921). The foundations of science: Science and hypothesis, the value of science, science and method. G. B. Halstead (Trans.). New York: Science Press.
■ Poincareґ, H. (1929). The foundations of science: Science and hypothesis, the value of science, science and method. New York: Science Press.
■ Poincareґ, H. (1952). Science and method. F. Maitland (Trans.) New York: Dover.
■ Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
■ Polanyi, M. (1958). Personal knowledge. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
■ Popper, K. (1968). Conjectures and refutations: The growth of scientific knowledge. New York: Harper & Row/Basic Books.
■ Popper, K., & J. Eccles (1977). The self and its brain. New York: Springer-Verlag.
■ Popper, K. R. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. London: Hutchinson.
■ Putnam, H. (1975). Mind, language and reality: Philosophical papers (Vol. 2). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Putnam, H. (1987). The faces of realism. LaSalle, IL: Open Court.
■ Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1981). The imagery debate: Analog media versus tacit knowledge. In N. Block (Ed.), Imagery (pp. 151-206). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1984). Computation and cognition: Towards a foundation for cog nitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Quillian, M. R. (1968). Semantic memory. In M. Minsky (Ed.), Semantic information processing (pp. 216-260). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Quine, W.V.O. (1960). Word and object. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Rabbitt, P.M.A., & S. Dornic (Eds.). Attention and performance (Vol. 5). London: Academic Press.
■ Rawlins, G.J.E. (1997). Slaves of the Machine: The quickening of computer technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
■ Reid, T. (1970). An inquiry into the human mind on the principles of common sense. In R. Brown (Ed.), Between Hume and Mill: An anthology of British philosophy- 1749- 1843 (pp. 151-178). New York: Random House/Modern Library.
■ Reitman, W. (1970). What does it take to remember? In D. A. Norman (Ed.), Models of human memory (pp. 470-510). London: Academic Press.
■ Ricoeur, P. (1974). Structure and hermeneutics. In D. I. Ihde (Ed.), The conflict of interpretations: Essays in hermeneutics (pp. 27-61). Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
■ Robinson, D. N. (1986). An intellectual history of psychology. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
■ Rorty, R. (1979). Philosophy and the mirror of nature. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
■ Rosch, E. (1977). Human categorization. In N. Warren (Ed.), Studies in cross cultural psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 1-49) London: Academic Press.
■ Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of categorization. In E. Rosch & B. B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization (pp. 27-48). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Rosch, E., & B. B. Lloyd (1978). Principles of categorization. In E. Rosch & B. B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Rose, S. (1970). The chemistry of life. Baltimore: Penguin Books.
■ Rose, S. (1976). The conscious brain (updated ed.). New York: Random House.
■ Rose, S. (1993). The making of memory: From molecules to mind. New York: Anchor Books. (Originally published in 1992)
■ Roszak, T. (1994). The cult of information: A neo- Luddite treatise on high- tech, artificial intelligence, and the true art of thinking (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
■ Royce, J. R., & W. W. Rozeboom (Eds.) (1972). The psychology of knowing. New York: Gordon & Breach.
■ Rumelhart, D. E. (1977). Introduction to human information processing. New York: Wiley.
■ Rumelhart, D. E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In R. J. Spiro, B. Bruce & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Rumelhart, D. E., & J. L. McClelland (1986). On learning the past tenses of English verbs. In J. L. McClelland & D. E. Rumelhart (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Rumelhart, D. E., P. Smolensky, J. L. McClelland & G. E. Hinton (1986). Schemata and sequential thought processes in PDP models. In J. L. McClelland, D. E. Rumelhart & the PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel Distributed Processing (Vol. 2, pp. 7-57). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Russell, B. (1927). An outline of philosophy. London: G. Allen & Unwin.
■ Russell, B. (1961). History of Western philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin.
■ Russell, B. (1965). How I write. In Portraits from memory and other essays. London: Allen & Unwin.
■ Russell, B. (1992). In N. Griffin (Ed.), The selected letters of Bertrand Russell (Vol. 1), The private years, 1884- 1914. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Ryecroft, C. (1966). Psychoanalysis observed. London: Constable.
■ Sagan, C. (1978). The dragons of Eden: Speculations on the evolution of human intel ligence. New York: Ballantine Books.
■ Salthouse, T. A. (1992). Expertise as the circumvention of human processing limitations. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 172-194). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Sanford, A. J. (1987). The mind of man: Models of human understanding. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
■ Sapir, E. (1921). Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.
■ Sapir, E. (1964). Culture, language, and personality. Berkeley: University of California Press. (Originally published in 1941.)
■ Sapir, E. (1985). The status of linguistics as a science. In D. G. Mandelbaum (Ed.), Selected writings of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality (pp. 160166). Berkeley: University of California Press. (Originally published in 1929).
■ Scardmalia, M., & C. Bereiter (1992). Literate expertise. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 172-194). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Schafer, R. (1954). Psychoanalytic interpretation in Rorschach testing. New York: Grune & Stratten.
■ Schank, R. C. (1973). Identification of conceptualizations underlying natural language. In R. C. Schank & K. M. Colby (Eds.), Computer models of thought and language (pp. 187-248). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ Schank, R. C. (1976). The role of memory in language processing. In C. N. Cofer (Ed.), The structure of human memory. (pp. 162-189) San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ Schank, R. C. (1986). Explanation patterns: Understanding mechanically and creatively. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Schank, R. C., & R. P. Abelson (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ SchroЁdinger, E. (1951). Science and humanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Searle, J. R. (1981a). Minds, brains, and programs. In J. Haugeland (Ed.), Mind design: Philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence (pp. 282-306). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Searle, J. R. (1981b). Minds, brains and programs. In D. Hofstadter & D. Dennett (Eds.), The mind's I (pp. 353-373). New York: Basic Books.
■ Searle, J. R. (1983). Intentionality. New York: Cambridge University Press.
■ Serres, M. (1982). The origin of language: Biology, information theory, and thermodynamics. M. Anderson (Trans.). In J. V. Harari & D. F. Bell (Eds.), Hermes: Literature, science, philosophy (pp. 71-83). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
■ Simon, H. A. (1966). Scientific discovery and the psychology of problem solving. In R. G. Colodny (Ed.), Mind and cosmos: Essays in contemporary science and philosophy (pp. 22-40). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
■ Simon, H. A. (1979). Models of thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
■ Simon, H. A. (1989). The scientist as a problem solver. In D. Klahr & K. Kotovsky (Eds.), Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert Simon. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Simon, H. A., & C. Kaplan (1989). Foundations of cognitive science. In M. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 1-47). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Simonton, D. K. (1988). Creativity, leadership and chance. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Skinner, B. F. (1974). About behaviorism. New York: Knopf.
■ Smith, E. E. (1988). Concepts and thought. In J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 19-49). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Smith, E. E. (1990). Thinking: Introduction. In D. N. Osherson & E. E. Smith (Eds.), Thinking. An invitation to cognitive science. (Vol. 3, pp. 1-2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Socrates. (1958). Meno. In E. H. Warmington & P. O. Rouse (Eds.), Great dialogues of Plato W.H.D. Rouse (Trans.). New York: New American Library. (Original publication date unknown.)
■ Solso, R. L. (1974). Theories of retrieval. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Theories in cognitive psychology. Potomac, MD: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Spencer, H. (1896). The principles of psychology. New York: Appleton-CenturyCrofts.
■ Steiner, G. (1975). After Babel: Aspects of language and translation. New York: Oxford University Press.
■ Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
■ Sternberg, R. J. (1994). Intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg, Thinking and problem solving. San Diego: Academic Press.
■ Sternberg, R. J., & J. E. Davidson (1985). Cognitive development in gifted and talented. In F. D. Horowitz & M. O'Brien (Eds.), The gifted and talented (pp. 103-135). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
■ Storr, A. (1993). The dynamics of creation. New York: Ballantine Books. (Originally published in 1972.)
■ Stumpf, S. E. (1994). Philosophy: History and problems (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
■ Sulloway, F. J. (1996). Born to rebel: Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York: Random House/Vintage Books.
■ Thorndike, E. L. (1906). Principles of teaching. New York: A. G. Seiler.
■ Thorndike, E. L. (1970). Animal intelligence: Experimental studies. Darien, CT: Hafner Publishing Co. (Originally published in 1911.)
■ Titchener, E. B. (1910). A textbook of psychology. New York: Macmillan.
■ Titchener, E. B. (1914). A primer of psychology. New York: Macmillan.
■ Toulmin, S. (1957). The philosophy of science. London: Hutchinson.
■ Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organisation of memory. London: Academic Press.
■ Turing, A. (1946). In B. E. Carpenter & R. W. Doran (Eds.), ACE reports of 1946 and other papers. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Turkle, S. (1984). Computers and the second self: Computers and the human spirit. New York: Simon & Schuster.
■ Tyler, S. A. (1978). The said and the unsaid: Mind, meaning, and culture. New York: Academic Press.
■ van Heijenoort (Ed.) (1967). From Frege to Goedel. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
■ Varela, F. J. (1984). The creative circle: Sketches on the natural history of circularity. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.), The invented reality (pp. 309-324). New York: W. W. Norton.
■ Voltaire (1961). On the Penseґs of M. Pascal. In Philosophical letters (pp. 119-146). E. Dilworth (Trans.). Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
■ Wagman, M. (1991a). Artificial intelligence and human cognition: A theoretical inter comparison of two realms of intellect. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1991b). Cognitive science and concepts of mind: Toward a general theory of human and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1993). Cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence: Theory and re search in cognitive science. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1995). The sciences of cognition: Theory and research in psychology and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1996). Human intellect and cognitive science: Toward a general unified theory of intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1997a). Cognitive science and the symbolic operations of human and artificial intelligence: Theory and research into the intellective processes. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1997b). The general unified theory of intelligence: Central conceptions and specific application to domains of cognitive science. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1998a). Cognitive science and the mind- body problem: From philosophy to psychology to artificial intelligence to imaging of the brain. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1998b). Language and thought in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology, artificial intelligence, and neural science. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1998c). The ultimate objectives of artificial intelligence: Theoretical and research foundations, philosophical and psychological implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (1999). The human mind according to artificial intelligence: Theory, re search, and implications. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wagman, M. (2000). Scientific discovery processes in humans and computers: Theory and research in psychology and artificial intelligence. Westport, CT: Praeger.
■ Wall, R. (1972). Introduction to mathematical linguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
■ Wallas, G. (1926). The Art of Thought. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.
■ Wason, P. (1977). Self contradictions. In P. Johnson-Laird & P. Wason (Eds.), Thinking: Readings in cognitive science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
■ Wason, P. C., & P. N. Johnson-Laird. (1972). Psychology of reasoning: Structure and content. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
■ Watson, J. (1930). Behaviorism. New York: W. W. Norton.
■ Watzlawick, P. (1984). Epilogue. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.), The invented reality. New York: W. W. Norton, 1984.
■ Weinberg, S. (1977). The first three minutes: A modern view of the origin of the uni verse. New York: Basic Books.
■ Weisberg, R. W. (1986). Creativity: Genius and other myths. New York: W. H. Freeman.
■ Weizenbaum, J. (1976). Computer power and human reason: From judgment to cal culation. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
■ Wertheimer, M. (1945). Productive thinking. New York: Harper & Bros.
■ Whitehead, A. N. (1925). Science and the modern world. New York: Macmillan.
■ Whorf, B. L. (1956). In J. B. Carroll (Ed.), Language, thought and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Whyte, L. L. (1962). The unconscious before Freud. New York: Anchor Books.
■ Wiener, N. (1954). The human use of human beings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
■ Wiener, N. (1964). God & Golem, Inc.: A comment on certain points where cybernetics impinges on religion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Winograd, T. (1972). Understanding natural language. New York: Academic Press.
■ Winston, P. H. (1987). Artificial intelligence: A perspective. In E. L. Grimson & R. S. Patil (Eds.), AI in the 1980s and beyond (pp. 1-12). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
■ Winston, P. H. (Ed.) (1975). The psychology of computer vision. New York: McGrawHill.
■ Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
■ Wittgenstein, L. (1958). The blue and brown books. New York: Harper Colophon.
■ Woods, W. A. (1975). What's in a link: Foundations for semantic networks. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representations and understanding: Studies in cognitive science (pp. 35-84). New York: Academic Press.
■ Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York: Holt; London: Methuen (1939).
■ Wundt, W. (1904). Principles of physiological psychology (Vol. 1). E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.
■ Wundt, W. (1907). Lectures on human and animal psychology. J. E. Creighton & E. B. Titchener (Trans.). New York: Macmillan.
■ Young, J. Z. (1978). Programs of the brain. New York: Oxford University Press.
■ Ziman, J. (1978). Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography
18 process
I
1.
noun
2. transitive verb
2. transitive verb
1) (of time or history) Lauf, der
he learnt a lot in the process — er lernte eine Menge dabei
be in process — in Gang sein
3) (method) Verfahren, das; see also academic.ru/23789/elimination">elimination 1)
process of evolution — Evolutionsprozess, der
verarbeiten [Rohstoff, Signal, Daten]; bearbeiten [Antrag, Akte, Darlehen]; (for conservation) behandeln [Leder, Lebensmittel]; (Photog.) entwickeln [Film]
II
[prə'ses] intransitive verb ziehen
* * *
['prəuses, ]( American[) 'pro-]
1. noun
1) (a method or way of manufacturing things: We are using a new process to make glass.) das Verfahren
2) (a series of events that produce change or development: The process of growing up can be difficult for a child; the digestive processes.) der Prozeß
3) (a course of action undertaken: Carrying him down the mountain was a slow process.) der Vorgang
2. verb
(to deal with (something) by the appropriate process: Have your photographs been processed?; The information is being processed by computer.) bearbeiten
- processed
- in the process of
* * *
pro·cess1
[ˈprəʊses, AM ˈprɑ:-]
I. n
<pl -es>
\process of ageing Alterungsprozess m
by a \process of elimination durch Auslese
digestive \process Verdauungsvorgang m
a new \process for treating breast cancer eine neue Methode zur Behandlung von Brustkrebs
to develop a new \process ein neues Verfahren entwickeln
▪ in \process im Gange
in the \process dabei
▪ to be in the \process of doing sth dabei sein, etw zu tun
5. (summons) gerichtliche Verfügung
to serve sb a \process [or a \process on sb] jdn vorladen
II. vt
1. (deal with)
▪ to \process sth etw bearbeiten
to \process an application/a document/the mail einen Antrag/ein Dokument/die Post bearbeiten
to \process sb's papers [or paperwork] jds Papiere durcharbeiten
▪ to \process sb jdn abfertigen
2. COMPUT
to \process data/information Daten/Informationen verarbeiten [o aufbereiten
▪ to \process sth etw verstehen [o [geistig] verarbeiten
4. (treat)
▪ to \process sth etw bearbeiten [o behandeln]
to \process beans for freezing/canning Bohnen zum Einfrieren/Einmachen verarbeiten
to \process food Nahrungsmittel haltbar machen [o konservieren]
to \process raw materials Rohstoffe [weiter]verarbeiten
to \process milk Milch sterilisieren
5. PHOT
to \process a film einen Film entwickeln
pro·cess2
[prə(ʊ)ˈses, AM prəˈ-]
vi ( form) [in einer Prozession] mitgehen
* * *
I ['prəʊses]
1. n
1) Prozess m
the process of time will... —
in the process of time — im Laufe der Zeit, mit der Zeit
to be in the process of doing sth — dabei sein, etw zu tun
a process of a bone/of the jaw — ein Knochen-/Kiefernvorsprung m
2. vt
(= treat) raw materials, data, information, waste verarbeiten; food konservieren; milk sterilisieren; application, loan, wood bearbeiten; film entwickeln; (= deal with) applicants, people abfertigen
II [prə'ses]
vi
(Brit: go in procession) ziehen, schreiten
* * *
process1 [ˈprəʊses; US auch ˈprɑ-]
A s
a) Herstellungsverfahren,
b) Herstellungsprozess, -vorgang m, Werdegang m;
in process of construction im Bau (befindlich);
be in the process of doing sth dabei sein, etwas zu tun;
process average mittlere Fertigungsgüte;
process automation Prozessautomatisierung f;
process engineering Verfahrenstechnik f;
process of combustion Verbrennungsvorgang;
processes of life Lebensvorgänge;
mental process, process of thinking Denkprozess
3. Arbeitsgang m
4. Fortgang m, -schreiten n, (Ver)Lauf m (der Zeit):
in process of time im Laufe der Zeit;
be in process im Gange sein, sich abwickeln;
in process of im Verlauf von (od gen);
the machine was damaged in the process dabei wurde die Maschine beschädigt
5. CHEM
a) → A 1, A 2:
b) Reaktionsfolge f
6. TYPO fotomechanisches Reproduktionsverfahren:
7. FOTO Übereinanderkopieren n
8. JUR
b) Rechtsgang m, (Gerichts)Verfahren n:
due process of law ordentliches Verfahren, rechtliches Gehör
9. ANAT Fortsatz m
10. BOT Auswuchs m
11. fig Vorsprung m
12. MATH Auflösungsverfahren n (einer Aufgabe)
B v/t
1. bearbeiten, behandeln, einem Verfahren unterwerfen
2. verarbeiten, Lebensmittel haltbar machen, Milch etc sterilisieren, (chemisch) behandeln, Stoff imprägnieren, Rohstoffe etc aufbereiten:
process into verarbeiten zu;
process information Daten verarbeiten;
processed cheese Schmelzkäse m
3. JUR
a) vorladen
b) gerichtlich belangen
5. fig jemandes Fall etc bearbeiten
process2 [prəˈses] v/i besonders Br
1. in einer Prozession (mit)gehen
2. ziehen
proc. abk
2. procedure
3. process
* * *
I
1.
noun
1) (of time or history) Lauf, der
process of evolution — Evolutionsprozess, der
verarbeiten [Rohstoff, Signal, Daten]; bearbeiten [Antrag, Akte, Darlehen]; (for conservation) behandeln [Leder, Lebensmittel]; (Photog.) entwickeln [Film]
II
[prə'ses] intransitive verb ziehen
* * *
n.
(§ pl.: processes)
= Arbeitsgang m.
Prozess -e m.
Vorgang -¨e m. v.
entwickeln v.
verarbeiten v.
weiter verarbeiten ausdr.
19 Intelligence
There is no mystery about it: the child who is familiar with books, ideas, conversation-the ways and means of the intellectual life-before he begins school, indeed, before he begins consciously to think, has a marked advantage. He is at home in the House of intellect just as the stableboy is at home among horses, or the child of actors on the stage. (Barzun, 1959, p. 142)
It is... no exaggeration to say that sensory-motor intelligence is limited to desiring success or practical adaptation, whereas the function of verbal or conceptual thought is to know and state truth. (Piaget, 1954, p. 359)
ntelligence has two parts, which we shall call the epistemological and the heuristic. The epistemological part is the representation of the world in such a form that the solution of problems follows from the facts expressed in the representation. The heuristic part is the mechanism that on the basis of the information solves the problem and decides what to do. (McCarthy & Hayes, 1969, p. 466)
Many scientists implicitly assume that, among all animals, the behavior and intelligence of nonhuman primates are most like our own. Nonhuman primates have relatively larger brains and proportionally more neocortex than other species... and it now seems likely that humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas shared a common ancestor as recently as 5 to 7 million years ago.... This assumption about the unique status of primate intelligence is, however, just that: an assumption. The relations between intelligence and measures of brain size is poorly understood, and evolutionary affinity does not always ensure behavioral similarity. Moreover, the view that nonhuman primates are the animals most like ourselves coexists uneasily in our minds with the equally pervasive view that primates differ fundamentally from us because they lack language; lacking language, they also lack many of the capacities necessary for reasoning and abstract thought. (Cheney & Seyfarth, 1990, p. 4)
Few constructs are asked to serve as many functions in psychology as is the construct of human intelligence.... Consider four of the main functions addressed in theory and research on intelligence, and how they differ from one another.
1. Biological. This type of account looks at biological processes. To qualify as a useful biological construct, intelligence should be a biochemical or biophysical process or at least somehow a resultant of biochemical or biophysical processes.
2. Cognitive approaches. This type of account looks at molar cognitive representations and processes. To qualify as a useful mental construct, intelligence should be specifiable as a set of mental representations and processes that are identifiable through experimental, mathematical, or computational means.
3. Contextual approaches. To qualify as a useful contextual construct, intelligence should be a source of individual differences in accomplishments in "real-world" performances. It is not enough just to account for performance in the laboratory. On [sic] the contextual view, what a person does in the lab may not even remotely resemble what the person would do outside it. Moreover, different cultures may have different conceptions of intelligence, which affect what would count as intelligent in one cultural context versus another.
4. Systems approaches. Systems approaches attempt to understand intelligence through the interaction of cognition with context. They attempt to establish a link between the two levels of analysis, and to analyze what forms this link takes. (Sternberg, 1994, pp. 263-264)
High but not the highest intelligence, combined with the greatest degrees of persistence, will achieve greater eminence than the highest degree of intelligence with somewhat less persistence. (Cox, 1926, p. 187)
There are no definitive criteria of intelligence, just as there are none for chairness; it is a fuzzy-edged concept to which many features are relevant. Two people may both be quite intelligent and yet have very few traits in common-they resemble the prototype along different dimensions.... [Intelligence] is a resemblance between two individuals, one real and the other prototypical. (Neisser, 1979, p. 185)
Given the complementary strengths and weaknesses of the differential and information-processing approaches, it should be possible, at least in theory, to synthesise an approach that would capitalise upon the strength of each approach, and thereby share the weakness of neither. (Sternberg, 1977, p. 65)
Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Intelligence
20 Cognitive Psychology
The basic reason for studying cognitive processes has become as clear as the reason for studying anything else: because they are there. Our knowledge of the world must be somehow developed from stimulus input.... Cognitive processes surely exist, so it can hardly be unscientific to study them. (Neisser, 1967, p. 5).
The task of the cognitive psychologist is a highly inferential one. The cognitive psychologist must proceed from observations of the behavior of humans performing intellectual tasks to conclusions about the abstract mechanisms underlying the behavior. Developing a theory in cognitive psychology is much like developing a model for the working of the engine of a strange new vehicle by driving the vehicle, being unable to open it up to inspect the engine itself....
It is well understood from the automata theory... that many different mechanisms can generate the same external behavior. (Anderson, 1980, pp. 12, 17)
[Cognitive psychology does not] deal with whole people but with a very special and bizarre-almost Frankensteinian-preparation, which consists of a brain attached to two eyes, two ears, and two index fingers. This preparation is only to be found inside small, gloomy cubicles, outside which red lights burn to warn ordinary people away.... It does not feel hungry or tired or inquisitive; it does not think extraneous thoughts or try to understand what is going on. It is, in short, a computer, made in the image of the larger electronic organism that sends it stimuli and records its responses. (Claxton, 1980, p. 13)
4) Cognitive Psychology Has Not Succeeded in Making a Significant Contribution to the Understanding of the Human Mind
Cognitive psychology is not getting anywhere; that in spite of our sophisticated methodology, we have not succeeded in making a substantial contribution toward the understanding of the human mind.... A short time ago, the information processing approach to cognition was just beginning. Hopes were high that the analysis of information processing into a series of discrete stages would offer profound insights into human cognition. But in only a few short years the vigor of this approach was spent. It was only natural that hopes that had been so high should sink low. (Glass, Holyoak & Santa, 1979, p. ix)
Cognitive psychology attempts to understand the nature of human intelligence and how people think. (Anderson, 1980, p. 3)
6) The Rise of Cognitive Psychology Demonstrates That the Impeccable Peripheralism of Stimulus- Response Theories Could Not Last
The past few years have witnessed a noticeable increase in interest in an investigation of the cognitive processes.... It has resulted from a recognition of the complex processes that mediate between the classical "stimuli" and "responses" out of which stimulus-response learning theories hoped to fashion a psychology that would by-pass anything smacking of the "mental." The impeccable peripheralism of such theories could not last. One might do well to have a closer look at these intervening "cognitive maps." (Bruner, Goodnow & Austin, 1956, p. vii)
Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Cognitive Psychology
См. также в других словарях:
Information Processes and Technology — (IPT) is the study of information systems and the processes and technology involved in them. IPT is also a subject offered to senior high school students in Australia in university entrance exams such as the HSC. It focuses on giving the student… … Wikipedia
Information forensics — is the science of investigation into systemic processes that produce information. Systemic processes utilize primarily computing and communication technologies to capture, treat, store and transmit data. Manual processes complement technology… … Wikipedia
Information management — (IM) is the collection and management of information from one or more sources and the distribution of that information to one or more audiences. This sometimes involves those who have a stake in, or a right to that information. Management means… … Wikipedia
information processing — Acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of information. Today the term usually refers to computer based operations. Information processing consists of locating and capturing information, using software to… … Universalium
Information engineering — (IE) or information engineering methodology (IEM) in software engineering is an approach to designing and developing information systems. Contents 1 Overview 2 History 3 Information engineering topics … Wikipedia
Information Engineering — (IE) or Information Engineering Methodology (IEM) is an approach to designing and developing information systems. It has a somewhat chequered history that follows two very distinct threads. It is said to have originated in Australia between 1976… … Wikipedia
Information technology audit process — Information technology audit process:Generally Accepted Auditing Standards (GAAS)In 1947, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) adopted GAAS to establish standards for audits. The standards cover the following three… … Wikipedia
Information technology governance — Information Technology Governance, IT Governance or ICT (Information Communications Technology) Governance, is a subset discipline of Corporate Governance focused on information technology (IT) systems and their performance and risk management.… … Wikipedia
information-based processes — Processes that collect, analyze, and disseminate information using any medium or form. These processes may be stand alone processes or sub processes that, taken together, comprise a larger system or systems of processes. See also information… … Military dictionary
Information technology consulting — (also called IT consulting, Computer consultancy, Computing consultancy, technology consulting business and technology services or IT advisory) is a field that focuses on advising businesses on how best to use information technology to meet their … Wikipedia
Information technology operations — Information technology operations, or IT operations, are the superset of all processes and services that are both provisioned by an IT staff to their internal or external and used by themselves, to run themselves as a business.The definition of… … Wikipedia
